欢迎来到留学生英语论文网

客服信息

我们支持 澳洲论文代写 Assignment代写、加拿大论文代写 Assignment代写、新西兰论文代写 Assignment代写、美国论文代写 Assignment代写、英国论文代写 Assignment代写、及其他国家的英语文书润色修改代写方案.论文写作指导服务

唯一联系方式Q微:7878393

当前位置:首页 > 论文范文 > European Studies

The pearl of africa

发布时间:2018-06-12
该论文是我们的学员投稿,并非我们专家级的写作水平!如果你有论文作业写作指导需求请联系我们的客服人员

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This report presents the spatial distribution of the protected areas (PA's) status in Uganda, “The Pearl of Africa”. The context of the report discusses the physical geography, natural environment and the status of biodiversity with critical focus on the functions of the protected areas for economic development. The report is based on secondary documentation utilizing the available information on websites supported by course work presentation all rolled up as cornerstone to build this report. Uganda is exceptionally important in terms of biodiversity, with the occurrence of 18,783 species, although the country covers 241,551km².

Uganda by virtue of its location was recognised as “The Pearl of Africa” and is endowed with a variety of ecosystems. The ecosystems discussed in the contexts include forests, wetlands, rangelands, open water bodies, and protected areas. The range of services provided by these ecosystems can broadly be divided into provisioning, regulating, cultural and life supporting system service. The purpose of the document also serves to provide an insight to the lectures to understand and appreciate the conservation values of Uganda in relation to the international conventions and Natura2000. Uganda has more species of primates than anywhere else on Earth of similar area. The two Ugandan forest parks (BINP and KNP), research studies have revealed173 species of Polypore fungi, 16% of the total species known from North America, Tropical Africa and Europe.

The Albertine Rift is an important region for global conservation with diversity of species richness, and Ugandan PA's lie along the ARV considered to shelter significant number of bird species and mammals. The high level of biodiversity in Uganda is function of Uganda's location in a zone of ecological communities of various ecosystems. The network of gazetted PA's in Uganda is managed by UWA, which represents 13% of the total area, and the NFA. These are serving to conserve as significant portion of biodiversity, and NFA manages 30% of the remaining tropical forests in the country.

The Policy and legislative framework for environmental protection and natural resources management is well developed in Uganda, together with capable institutions such as National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA) and National Forest Authority (NFA) and range of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO's), have played a key role in transforming the institutions.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 The physical geography and natural environment

Uganda is a land locked country lying between latitudes 4.2° N and 1.5° S, and longitudes 28° E and 35° W. Bordering Kenya to the East, Tanzania and Rwanda to the South, the Sudan in the North and Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) to the West. The country with occurrence of 18,783 species covers an estimated total area of 241,551km², WRI (2003) of which 15.1% is open water, 13% National parks and Wildlife reserves (Protected areas), 19% tropical high forest reserves and 1% forest plantations (see Figure. 1.1).

Uganda is gift by nature, Winston Churchill in 1908 was struck by the natural beauty and called Uganda “The Pearl of Africa” because of its natural beauty. Its geographical location has endowed it with range of geographical features, which range from glacier-topped mountains, tropical rainforests and dry deciduous acacia bush lands, to vast lakes, wetlands, and swamps as well as fertile agricultural landscapes. The diversity of this can be appreciated along both the North-South and East-West (WRI, 2003; Gowa, 2003).

1.2 Purpose of the assignment

In accordance with assignment (home work), this document highlights the status of the protected areas (PA's) in Uganda. It discusses their importance in Uganda at local, national and international level. The report will serve as a tool to provide future lecturers and participants an impression of the PA's in Uganda. The report is build upon the recent reports from various PA's, and attempts to focus the analysis of different activities in respective conservation areas (CA) for local and national development.

1.3 Aims and Objectives

The main objective of this assignment is to provide an overview of the protected areas in Uganda, taking into consideration the physical geography of the country and natural environment. The objective is to use the available information received in the course and its application methods or approach to develop the document in addition to the information available on the websites.

1.3.1 Specific objectives include:

  1. the geographical overview of the country, its natural features and the spatial distribution of the protected areas.
  2. the critical reflection of the functions of protected areas with regard to conservation of biodiversity for sustainable development.
  3. the aspect of Natura 2000 regulations in Uganda, if non-EU are there any difference in relation to the applicability of IUCN categories on the implementation of international conventions.

1.4 Methodology and Approach employed.

This assignment essentially relied majorly on secondary documentation sourced from different PA's in Uganda. In addition, to the literature review from the various websites all played significantly in building of this document. The photographs and maps depicting the situation of the PA's and human activities are included as part of the information from CA reports all contributed as part of literature review. The analysis and reporting tools included maps, tables, charts, graphs and photographs. Tables have been used to help analyze and present quantitative data, graphs to explain trends and variations of certain animal species, and the charts to reveal spatial percentages. Whilst the maps to represent the spatial distribution of the PA's and their physical geographical locations in the country.

2.0 COUNTRY's BIODIVERSITY

2.1 Ecological Ecosystems

The diverse landscape ecosystems and climate that characterize Uganda have supported a diversity of fauna and flora species by virtue of its location in zone of ecological communities. In addition to the high fauna diversity, there are at least 94 recognized vegetation ecosystems (WRI, 2003; Gowa, 2003; IUCN, 2004). These ecological ecosystems include closed canopy tropical high forests, montane bamboo, heather and moorland, swamps and wetlands, moist woodlands and dry bush land and thickets.

Uganda mostly consists of tropical moist deciduous forest in the north and rainforest throughout the central to southern regions with smaller areas of tropical mountain ecosystems in the north eastern and southwest corners (FAO, Forestry Department, 2000). Uganda's two forest national parks, Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP) and Kibale National Park (KNP), scientists have recorded 173 species of Polypore fungi, which is 16% of the total species known from North America, Tropical Africa and Europe (Plumptre, et al., 2003; WRI, 2003; USAID, 2006). There are four distinct ecosystem types; shrub lands, savannah and grasslands covering 44% of total land area, cropland and natural vegetation 20%. One percent (1%) of the land is barren or with sparse vegetation (WRI, 2003).

2.2 Climate, Topography and Hydrology

Basically, much of the country has an altitude of 900-1500m, and is one average 1200m above mean sea level (FAO, Land and Water Development Division, 2005). Uganda consists of plateau, rolling hills, flatlands and mountainous, which are dissected by numerous streams rivers, lakes and wetlands (NEMA, 2001; Gowa, 2003).

Uganda has a dense drainage network system, which is concentrated mainly in the south of the Nile. This includes several lakes, rivers, and Victoria, the World's second largest fresh water body. Wetlands cover 13% of the country's area, of which two thirds are permanently flooded, primarily in the south (FAO, Land and Water Development Division, 2005). River Nile accounts for 98% of the country's drainage system. The Nile basin is divided into eight sub-basins; Lake Victoria Basin (south east), Lake Kyoga Basin (central), Victoria Nile (north west), Achwa Basin and the Kipedo Basin (FAO, Land and Water Development Division, 2005). Apart from the lakes, there are over 160 minor water bodies, covering 1707 km² (FAO, Land and Water Development Division, 2005).

Mean annual rain fall is approximately 1180mm; precipitation ranges from 750mm per year in the north east Karamoja pastoral areas to 1500mm per year in the east along the shores of lake Victoria, in the highlands of Mountain Elgon, in the southwest Rwenzori Mountains in the west and the northern part of the country (FAO, Land and Water Development Division, 2005). The climate is generally tropical but mild because of the high altitude and temperature ranges i.e between 16° and 29°C (NEMA, 2001).

2.3 Status of Biodiversity

Over the last two decades, a number of policies and legislative initiatives have been undertaken to conserve the country's biodiversity focused on transformation of natural resources institutions such as UWA, NEMA and NFA. To date, there 682 forest reserves nearly 30% of which are under the management of national government, and13% wildlife protected areas 10 national parks, 12 wildlife reserves, 10 wildlife sanctuaries, 5 community wildlife areas, 12 Ramsar sites and some wetlands are of international significance, and 2 UNESCO Biosphere reserve in the country (Gowa, 2003; IUCN, 2004). These areas protect about 17% of tropical high forests, and 65.2% of sparse tress and parkland (WRI, 2003; IUCN, 2004).

Uganda's IUCN protected areas are concentrated in the north east and in the west of the country mainly along the ARV which forms part of the Uganda's border (Gowa, 2003; IUCN, 2004) Two main closed forest remain; the forests surrounding Lake Victoria in the eastern and those of the western rift escarpment and among the highly stocked tropical forest covering 999.20km² (WRI, 2003; FAO, Land and Water Development Division, 2005).

Uganda has significant numbers of internationally important wetlands (Ramsar Sites) some of them are within the PA's are along the western border of the country (WRI, 2003; Gowa, 2003). Not only are wetlands centres of high biodiversity, providing indispensable habitat, but they are also used to make handcrafts by communities (National Wetland Programme, 2004; Maclean et al., 2003). Collectively, these water bodies contain the significant assemblage of diverse species. The importance for the CA stems from not only the high number of species but also an impressively high level of endemism in Uganda (USAID, 2006).

Like any other country in the world, the threats to biodiversity in Uganda have both direct and indirect causes (USAID, 2006). Four of the principal indirect threats to the conservation of global biodiversity in Uganda are:

  1. habitat loss / degradation /fragmentation
  2. unstainable harvesting and over-exploitation of living and non-living resources
  3. invasion by introduced species
  4. pollution / contamination of ecosystems as result of advancement in globalization.

Subsequently, the GoU has made capable efforts to transform policies and legislations specifically focused on natural resource conservation to diffuse the underlying threats targeting the country's natural heritage. The strategic institutions have been put in place with institutional development capacity supported with field level interventions to address the threats.

3.0 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE PROTECTED AREAS

3.1Bwindi Impenetrable National Park

Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP) is located in the South western Uganda 1°04´50°S, 29° 38´41°E in East Africa. The BINP is situated alongside the DRC border next to the Virunga National Park (VNP) on the edge of the Western Great Rift Valley. The park measures 331km² of jungle forest, and BINP is inscribed into the prestigious World Heritage Site (WHS) 1994, under UNESCO to gain international recognition for its scientific and cultural values (see Figure 1.2). It is also recognised as country's hotspot for the conservation of flagship species for sustainable development by virtue of its role in conserving the endangered mountain gorillas for eco-tourism (see photo.1.1).

3.1.1 Significance of Bwindi impenetrable National Park

Significance of BINP includes: i) Bwindi and Mgahinga are one of the riches ecosystem forests in the whole of Africa, and they hold the diversity of species considered a feature of the two parks. ii) BINP provides 120 species of mammals, 346 species of birds, 202 species of butterflies, 163 species of trees, 100 species of ferns, 27 species of frogs, and many endangered species. Both parks in particular, shares in common the high level of the Albertine Rift Valley (ARV).iii) most notable 340 species of mountain gorilla half of the World's populations are found in the BINP. There are six habituated groups of Mountain gorillas in the BINP specifically open to tourism (see Table 1.1). The photo 1.1above demonstrates the fact that, eco-tourism is one of the significant activities BINP and MGNP offer in the region as an umbrella to foster the conservation of the rare endangered mountain gorilla populations and its habitat. The presence of the endangered mountain gorilla populations in the three countries have made these states being recognized worldwide.

3.1.2 Brief characteristics of Bwindi ecosystem

The characteristic of BINP are as follows: i) the park contains three wonderful and precious water falls that typify ones impression of a tropical rain forest. ii) BINP is a fromontane forest with dense under growth vegetation and only accessible on foot. Two of the Great Apes (Mountain gorilla and Chimpanzees) co-exist together, in the whole of Africa (Butynski, 1990). iii) Its an Ancient rain forest among the few in Africa to have flourished.

Of the total number of visitors to BINP on various activities 85% prefered trecking the endangered mountain gorillas (Gorilla gorilla beringei) in the jungles of Bwindi, 11% majorly enjoyed nature walks within the forest ecosystems, whereas 3% were involved on bird watching and 1% participated in filming crew respectively (see Figure 1.3) above. This accounted for the highest number of visitors 1,106 recorded in the month of June (see Table 1.1), and 620 for May compared to 573 for the month of April during the period under discussion.

3.2 Mgahinga Gorilla National Park

The Mgahinga Gorilla National Park (MGNP) covers an area of 33.7km², but commands high diversity of species endemic to the ARV by virtue of its location. It is situated extreme South-western corner of Uganda that border with the DRC and Rwanda. It includes part of Muhavura, Mgahinga and Sabinyo volcanic mountains. Mount Muhavura forms Crater Lake at the summit, which is 4,127m in the park, and commands view for tourist interest.

The specifics of MGNP and BINP are quite similar in nature because both parks hold critically endangered mountain gorillas population, and their ecosystems support the species under discussion (see Figure 1.2). The only distinct features are the aforementioned volcanic mountains and unique underground cave found in MGNP with historical background. The access to the MGNP by road is through Kabale and Kisoro 535km from Kampala.

3.2.1 Characteristics for MGNP, includes: i) MGNP forms apportion of the Great Volcano Conservation Area (GVCA), and considered second home for the rare mountain gorillas, which range within the GVCA ecosystem. ii) Park ecosystem is dominated by bamboo, which is preferred diet by mountain gorillas (Gorilla gorilla beringei).iii) MGNP borders with Volcanoe National Park (VNP) Rwanda, and Virunga National Park (VNP) DRC.iv) other animals range within GVCA include Leopards, Giant forest hog, Bush back, Forest buffaloe, Duiker, Ardvark, Golden Cat, Elephant, Jackal, Colobus monkey, Golden monkey, Honey badger etc. The MGNP holds also significant number of endemic species of birds, plants and reptiles restricted to the ARV belt.

3.2.2 Visitor statistical analysis

The visitor analysis (Table 1.3) supports high number of visitor's trecking the endangered mountain gorillas with total of 488 visitors, followed by mountaineering, which accounted for 171 visitors, while the golden monkey walk registered 82, and bird watching was among the least with 41 visitors. The endangered mountain gorilla populations are recognized as the World's most endangered ape, and in 2003 census puts the figure to a total population of 706 individuals (Miller, et al., 1998; Robbins and Robbins, 2004; Steklis and Gerald, 2001). One population of about 320 individuals are in BINP. The other 386 endangered mountain gorillas live in the GVCA, which covers three PA's in three country's i.e MGNP in Uganda,VNP in Rwanda and VNP in the DRC. MGNP and BINP are recognized both regional and internationally for immense conservation significance containing rare, endangered and endemic species some spilling over from the Virunga landscape (Butynski, 1990). On face of it, gorilla eco-tourism appears to be the center of hotspot tourism attraction in Uganda to view the habituated gorillas which started in 1993.

3.3 Queen Elizabeth National Park

The Queen Elizabeth National Park (QENP) covers an area of 1,978km², and is situated a stride the Equator in the Western Rift Valley (WRV) of South west Uganda (see Figure1.4). The park, overlooks the Rwenzori Mountains, and contiguous with VNP in the DRC. It is recognized as a World Bio-sphere Reserve, inscribed on the UNESCO list, 1979, and includes a Ramsar Wetland Site of international significance, and classified as an important Bird Area (IBA) by Birdlife International (IUCN, 2004). However, many challenges still emerge, despite pressure arising out of encroachments such as illegal grazing, isolated incidence of settlements caused by poachers activities and conflict between wildlife and the local communities adjacent the protected area also threaten the integrity of the PA and complicates the management (USAID, 2006).

Figure 1.4 reflects poaching threats in the park, and indicators of encroachments at different scales. This therefore, calls for concerted efforts to complement the maintenance of law enforcement, and community collaboration to diffuse the impending threats to wildlife biodiversity and its habitat. The map (see Figure 1.5) displays the spatial distribution of various species of animals found in the QENP in relation to either habitat preference or other factors.

3.3.1 The characteristics of Queen Elizabeth National Park

  1. The Park provides an unforgettable and unique experience to any visitor to this park, cannot fail to be amazed by enormous diversity in each Kingdom of creation. Let alone, typical lions which spend most of their time on ground, but in the Ishasha area of QENP they are often found lounging in trees “King of the Beast” (see Photo 1.2 below).
  2. QENP has over 568 of Uganda's 1,027 species of birds, considered a quarter of Africa's bird species are found in the park, than any other park in Africa(Plumptre, at el.,2003).
  3. the park holds varied habitat ecosystems, which include open grassland with thickets, thick bush, forest, swamps and lakes.
  4. the Craters formed by volcanic action provide magnificent landscape, and some contain scenic salt lakes of attraction. Among other attractions in QENP the famous Kazinga channel, this joins the two Lakes Edward and George, which holds the Ramsar Site. All this is activities are of great excitement and memorable experience provided by the park.

3.3.2 The ecological vegetation of the park

It is widely believed that the diversity of species in QENP is associated with significant variation of its ecosystems: Key to this are the diverse wetlands of the two Lakes George and Edward with vast set up of papyrus swamps, lagoons, and tributaries of rivers linking the streams (see Figures 1.4 and 1.5) above. Increasingly, the Songo swamp has not been explored widely for tourism experience and forms part of the Ramsar Site (Maclean, at al., 2003). Evidence suggests that the savannah of QENP, coupled with high rainfall and rich palatable grazing, was at one time supported the largest bio-mass of mammals anywhere else in the world (White, 1983; WRI, 2003). The acacia woodland in the park holds largely great diversity of bird species. The mid-altitudinal moist tropical forest of Maramagambo holds also different species of birds and considered a potential area for bird lovers.

3.3.3 Descriptive analysis of some species found in the Queen Elizabeth National Park

The population of wildlife in QENP is recovering steadily and statistically, the Uganda kob trends can best be described as stable population within the park. This is because in 1995 the population hit its peak with about 32,500 individual species recorded. On the contrary in 1999 the species analysis revealed sharp decline of Kobs population of about 20,000 individuals, probably due to environmental factors such as dry spelt, which could have affected food diet. However, the population was able to adjacent, and stabilized in the subsequent year. Thus, the buffalo population indicates spontaneous fluctuation and perhaps, could be linked to various factors, but not limited to poaching (see Figure 1.6). Meanwhile, the elephant population reflects gradual flow and later the population picked up relatively between the period 2002 and 2004, suggesting improvement on ecological factors and law enforcement operations.

3.4 Rwenzori Mountain National Park

The Rwenzori Mountain National Park (RMNP) was gazetted in 1999, and the park covers 998km² of rugged mountain terrain (see Figure 1.7) below. The Ruwenzori Mountain lies along the common border with DRC, and relatively rises to a height of 5100m above sea level. It is recognised as “Mountains of the Moon” and categorized by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site (WHS) in 1994, and the park is known for snow caped and beautiful plant life.

The RMNP has high biodiversity of species that are widely considered endemic to the Albertine Rift, and holds several endangered species endemic to the locality. Evidence suggests that, the park has considerable high number of plants and trees. The park is recognized for its botany, which has been described as the most beautiful in the World (Hockings, et al., 2001).

The RMNP stands out with beautiful distinct features, considered incomparable with mist shrouded peaks, which provide the most magnificent view of the national park. It holds varied ecosystems like afromontane forest with high biodiversity of species. The luxuriant vegetation found above 3000m provides a unique experience of a fromontane ecosystems considered more attractive to tourist (see photo1.3). Of course, mountaineering experience suggests that the high you hike the fitter you become. This means tourists hiking must be physically fit, and the trails provide opportunities for wonderful plants and unique scenery, the RMNP is known for globally. The tourist sometimes wants to try out some of the peaks, and of course they provide challenges that match with those in the Alps. Reports indicate that the period between December to March and June to mid August are the best time for hiking the Rwenzori Mountain ranges (UWA Annual Report, 2008-09).

3.4.1 Major characteristics for the RMNP:

  1. by geographical description, the Rwenzori Mountain features as the third highest mountain in the continent of Africa, with permanent snow and glaciers at its peaks.
  2. high biodiversity fauna includes 106 species of mammals of which 15 are endemic to ARV, 216 species of birds and 213 species of butterflies and endemic species of reptile
  3. flora includes five recognized vegetation zone, grassland, montane forest, bamboo, heather and alpine the extreme and endemic species of plants.

3.5 Kibale National Park

Kibale National Park (KNP) has a size of 795km2 and is a medium altitude transitional moist evergreen forest with characteristics of both dry and wet natural high forest. Figure (1.8) KNP consists of 60% evergreen forest, 40% colonizing bush, grassland and major rivers interconnected with swamps (Howard, 1991). The KNP with lush tropical rain forest coupled with a fascinating diversity of its wildlife species is considered a hotspot for 12 species of primates (TBA, 1996). The recognition of KNP stems as research centre, and the home to the most beautiful and stunning natural forests in Uganda (TBA, 1996). It is also geographical location for chimpanzees trecking in Uganda, most tourists prefer visiting KNP mainly for chimpanzee habituation experience found nowhere else except this prestigious protected area. The park is important for its diversity of species, and hosts the centre for Makerere University Biological Field Station as research centre.

3.5.1 Fauna and Flora of Kibale National Park

The park hosts12 species of non-human primates including the endangered Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) and the Red Colobus monkey (Colobus badius) among others. The KNP has the only viable population of Red colobus monkeys in East Africa (IUCN, 1998). It has 372 species of birds of 58 families, 45 species of butterflies. The forest has 229 tree species are found in KNP approximately, half of the total in Uganda. The tree species in KNP listed as endangered in Uganda include: Cordia millenii, Entandrophragma angolense and Lovoa swynnertoni.

KNP is considered one of the regional center of biological endemism, and among contiguous protected areas around lake Albert, which extend 350km along the Albertine Rift up to Lake Kivu, with a variety of ecosystems ranging from high altitude afromontane habitats to low, and medium altitude natural high forests, savannas and lake systems (FAO, Forestry Department, 2000). Moist evergreen medium altitude high forest, transitional, centres of endemism, chimpanzees, grasslands, crater lakes, River Dura and River Mpanga, Ramsar site wetlands classified as Important Bird Area (IBA).

3.5.2 Visitor trend analysis

In the KNP area, the results also shows that, most of the visitors were foreign non-residents (FNR) 73% (see Figure 1.9), whereas the foreign resident(FN) accounted for 5%, while the very important people (VIP) registered 7%, the school students (STUD) 13%, and finally 2% for the citizen (CTN). The analyses of these results suggest that, FNR prefer traveling worldwide, and hence spend time to appreciate nature in its natural state compared to the CTN, probably the CTN lack financial capability or have little interest to related with nature. Similarly, out of the total visitors received in KNP between the period of April and June, 2009, 820 tracked the Chimpanzees, 85 were involved in nature/night walk, and 30 participated in the Chimpanzee habituation experience (see Table 1.4).

3.6.1 Habitat characteristic and wildlife

The Sempaya hot springs is unique in the region with characteristics of micro-habitats, which accommodates relative diversity of wildlife species (see Photo 1.4). The hot spring (hot water) ranges from 106°C to 130°C, quite often tourist have boiled eggs within 5-10minutes. There is couple of natural hot springs in the SNP, and salt leak for animals. River Semulki indicated on the map forms the international boundary with DRC at the same time marks the PA boundary as well. It also reflects activities permitted by the park authorities, in collaboration with local communities to access certain resources on agreed terms through memorandum of understanding (MoU) to gain their support for the conservation of the protected area.

The (Figure 1.11) was generated basically from routine ranger normal patrols and opportunistic sighting of wildlife records using the Global Position System (GPS) instruments (UWA-Quarterly Report, 2009). This therefore, provided the analysis of spatial distribution of wild animal species in the PA, and of course these animals do not have to possess a passport to cross to the DRC.

The forest ecosystem is quite vast and hence, there is free ranging movement of wildlife in the area. The Semulki River is favored watering point for many wild animals ranging on both sides of the ecosystems. The jungle life in SNP has been described as incredible especially for birders as it hosts 400 species of birds and 300 species of buffer flies and 8 of primates.

3.7 Murchison Falls National Park

Murchison Falls National Park (MFNP) is the largest PA in Uganda with an area of 5,025km² (see Figure 1.11) below. The River Nile divides the MFNP in two major sectors the Northern and Southern sector, and forms the Murchison falls where the park derives its name, and flows over the Western Rift Valley escarpment towards Lake Albert-the Delta wetland system (Ramsar Site). On the Eastern part of MFNP, are the Karuma falls, where the Nile River cascades for over 23kms of rapids in spectacular sight. Tourists have described the rapids as the most exciting white water, and the River Nile is recognized in this regard.

3.7.1 MFNP scenic characteristics

The MFNP protects extensive wild African savannah separated by River Nile, and is considered the country's magnificent park, and it has been proposed to become WHS. It is recognized regionally for its incredible waterfalls in rugged rift valley escarpment frothing a pool of 43m, and burst out the world's longest river called River Nile (see Photo, 1.5). This park protects a wide array of mammal populations which include among the big five species, and the famous Nile crocodile. The mega species like elephants tend to concentrations along the bank of the Nile and areas around the remarkable waterfalls. The Nile considerably hosts water dwelling species like hippopotamus, and variety of bird species, which include one of the most beautiful world's rare shoebill stork populations.

3.7.2 Analysis of the patrol coverage and selected animal trends

Of 351 suspects apprehended on different illegal activities by patrols conducted (see Figure 1.11) throughout the eight sectors of MFNP, 285 (81.2%) were prosecuted before Court and convicted, 42(12%) cautioned and released because of being juveniles or probably the old age, 18 (5.1%) were still pending to be produced to Court. Similarly, 2 (0.5%) were dismissed, due to lack of substantive evidence to link the accused persons to the scene of crime, while 4 (1.2%) were referred to high Court. As a result of increased threats on the PA's resources, this has a bearing on wild game population viability, and hence certain species are in verge of decline (see Figure 1.12). Of course, this calls for spatial integral management system to compliment the traditional approach of law enforcement operations.

The illegal activities discussed above, suggest significant relationship associated with species threshold, due to human influence. The interpretation of the species trend clearly, indicates that buffaloes and hippopotamus have always been on kill, and followed by the Uganda kob either for commercial or subsistence poaching for the pot. Interestingly, the lion's trend also gradually decreasing as opposed to the elephant. The available evidence suggests that, the species occasionally move out of the PA, and therefore, get killed under unclear circumstance. The management authorities are only informed after the animal has been killed for fear of arrest, and prosecution before courts of law. Similarly, for the case of the warthogs, bush pigs and waterbuck these animals have been preyed upon mostly by the pride of lions, which are quite numerous in the MFNP especially in the Albert Delta (pers. oberv.).

3.8 Kidepo Valley National Park

The Kidepo Valley National Park (KVNP) is one of Uganda's most spectacular parks with an area of 1,442km² (see Figure 1.13). The KVNP harbors scenic landscape that cannot be found in any other protected areas in East Africa, and the park lies extremely in the corner of Uganda's boarder with Sudan and Kenya respectively. This park is relatively unique as mentioned in the context by virtue of its ecosystems like the open savannah and unique belt of mountain ranges, which end in a rugged horizon in diverse landscape. It is imperative to note that the climatic conditions in KVNP, supports flora which has maintained the presence of unique mammal species and most of these animals are found nowhere else in Ugandan parks except Kidepo ecological environs.

3.8.1 Descriptive vegetation characteristics

Open savannah is the best descriptive characteristic for the vegetation found in the KVNP, and therefore, offers distinct variation in terms of structure and composition of the ecosystem (see Figure 1.13). The areas around River Lorupei support creditable species of acacia woodland, which attract quite a good number of browsing species of animals including elephants and giraffes. Whereas, the hills are virtually dominated by dry mountain forest ecosystem recognized by the IUCN. The spatial vegetation distribution supports a greater diversity of animal species than all the other parks in Uganda. The KVNP was listed to have over 80 species of mammals and 28 of them are not found any other park in Uganda (Howard, 1991; IUCN, 1998).

3.8.2 Kidepo Valley National Park Fauna and Flora

The Bat-eared fox, stripped hyena, caracal, cheetah and wild dog were considered unique carnivore species found in KVNP, and Karamoja region. Among other carnivores present in the park such as the lion, leopards, spotted hyena several small cats, black backed jackal, and side striped jackal are among the common animals in the park. The greater and lesser kudus, chandler's mountain reedbuck, klipspringer and dikidiki are part of the ungulates commonly found in the open savannah of the Narus valley. The park also holds significant number of large mammals, with five species of primates especially the Kavirondo bush baby largely considered endemic to KVNP (IUCN, 1998).

The available evidence suggests that of the 465 species of birds documented in KVNP, 100 of them were not recorded anywhere else in the country's protected areas, and 26 are believed to be endemic to the region, and in particular the Kidepo landscape (Kantended, et al., 1990; IUCN, 2004). Ostrich and kori bustard are species often associated with KVNP and of great interest for the tourist, as a result of the landscape.

3.9 Lake Mburo National Park

Lake Mburo National Park (LMNP) is located within the boundaries of two districts of Kiruhura and Mbarara. It is amongst the savannah national park with an area of 260km², and more accessible compared to the rest of the parks in Uganda. LMNP maintains extensive ecosystems of wetlands vital for the conservation of wetland oriented species given its diversity of aquatic habitats. Of late, LMNP part of its wetland ecosystem attained the status of Ramsar site called Lake Mburo-Naikivale wetland system

3.9.1 Fauna and Flora

The park protects 68 species of mammals which include among others zebra, impala, eland, topi, buffalo and leopard, while the swamps hold sitatunga antelopes and red, black yellow papyrus gonalek. The rare shoebill stork is among the bird species commonly viewed in park. The LMNP landscape is rich with unique habitats suitable to provide palatable ground for grazing and browsing species, and the lake shores has a varied mosaic type of habitats such as the forest galleries; rich acacia tree valleys, seasonal and permanent swamps which contribute to the well being of wildlife species in the park.

3.10 Mount Elgon National Park

The Mount Elgon National Park (MENP) covers an area of 1,145 km² was gazetted 1992, dominated by natural high forest. The MENP administratively covers the districts of Sironko, Manafwa, Mbale, Bukwa, and Kapchorwa. Mount Elgon provides the single most important drainage source of water system for the five districts. The drainage pattern of the mountain is radial with several rivers and numerous streams and brooks flowing out in all directions through narrow valleys and series of rapids and waterfalls. Mount Elgon forms an important hydrological system to the Kyoga and Nile basins, and plans are in progress to manage Mount Elgon massif as Transfrontier Conservation Area (TFCA). Elgon ecosystem is rich for plant and mammal species considered endemic and found on the mountain (Howard, 1991)

3.10.1 Physical characteristics

Three vegetation zones were distinguished on MENP i.e the alpine and ericaceous zone, the afro-montane forest zone, and the afro-montane rain forest zone, which is restricted to the wetter southwestern and southern slopes, mostly below 2500m (Penny and Peter, 1998). The mountain is considered water catchment and the forest zone receives substantial rainfall which supports the local people and beyond for the agricultural production (Synott, 1968). MENP is an extremely valuable ecosystem spanning the border between Kenya and Uganda. It has unique biodiversity, a set of precious component ecosystems and habitats including forest.

3.10.2 Mammals and Birds

Significant number of records have increasingly reported sightings of the common large mammals species in the park (Katende et al. 1990; Howard, 1991). Most of the wild animals encountered in the park their movement are within the two countries Kenya and Uganda.

The opportunity to manage Elgon massif ecosystem as TFCA for effective management because both country's Uganda and Kenya have established sufficient PA's to maintain viable populations of mammals and rare species of wildlife, which are considered vulnerable to extinction and therefore call for an immediate intervention to enhance protection (see Table 1.5). The conservation of Mount Elgon is largely imperative to protect and maintain the wildlife population faced with global threats for instance reports indicates 37 species of faunal within the TFCA (22 mammal, 2 insect and for birds 13 species of which 9 species) are known to be endemic in the region(IUCN, 2005).

4.0 CRITICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE PROTECTED AREAS

4.1 Conservation of Biodiversity for Sustainable Development

The economic impact and values of the PA's have been discussed briefly in the context above though not exhaustively. However, perhaps, we broadly recognize the core functions of these ecosystems on various aspects such as direct and indirect functions the protected areas can provide on various scales, and include the following:

4.1.1Direct functions of protected area: the PA's biological resources supply goods for human consumption and support sustainable economic development by virtue of its ecosystems. They provide raw materials for biotechnology, and conserve genetic resources, which are essentially important for mankind (SCBD, 2004).

  1. Wildlife resources: These resources yield direct benefits because they a source of trophies, bush meat, and support tourism activities for the country. Tourism currently, represents the major legitimate value accruing from wildlife resources encompassed in PA's. A significant amount of revenue has been generated by UWA from entry fees, and charges for the recreational activities in PA's, which includes royalties from concessions.
  2. Forest and woodland resources: the PA's by virtue of their existence provide a wide range of non-timber forest products, and limited amount of timber as well.
  3. Education and research: it provides avenue for education especially sites for scientific research on a wide array of ecological, social and economic fields of study on global scale.

4.1.1.2 Indirect function of protected area: accrue from the PA's ecosystem services and environmental functions associated with biodiversity components, which indirectly support agricultural production and components of various activities. These indirect functions include:

  1. Carbon sequestration: natural ecosystems such as forest, woodland, bush land and grassland acts as a carbon sink, thereby helping to mitigate the effects of global warming. Estimates of carbon sequestration range between 10 tons of carbon per hectare of bush land or grassland to 210 tons of carbon per hectare of closed canopy virgin forest (Myers, 1997; and Sala Paruelo, 1997). The PA's ecosystems may together provide economic functions through mitigating the effects of global warming amongst underlying environmental factors.
  2. Wetlands water retention and purification: wetlands generate indirect functions through water recharge and storage, sediment trapping, nutrient cycling and water purification services. Many of these functions contribute the productivity and direct use of wetland on harvesting of wild resources for economic purposes.
  3. Provision of natural catchment protection and soil control: the natural vegetation of PA's play an important role in mitigating soil erosion (Emerton and Muramira, 1999). By proving ground cover they control excessive run off, minimize total soil loss and decrease downstream sedimentation and siltation

5.0 FUNDAMENTAL REGULATIONS FOR BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

5.1 International obligations (Legal framework)

In the last two decades, government of Uganda (GoU) made a number of legal reforms and restructuring to provide for enabling environment for management of natural resources. This was done in accordance with various international legal obligations and good sustainable principles. The Ugandan regulations related to biodiversity conservation are in conformity with the EU, since Uganda is party to Natura 2000 regulations. At international and regional levels, some of the main multilateral environmental regulations and agreements that have provided the fundamental principles for the conservation of biodiversity include the following:

  1. African Convention on Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (1968); Uganda signed it on 15th September 1968 and ratified it on 30th November 1977. It has broad coverage but with specific provisions on ecosystems, habitats and species. This convention is essentially an in-situ conservation instrument for flora and fauna.
  2. Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972); Uganda ratified the convention on the 20th November 1987. It is the first global instrument to address the conservation of a particular habitat and focuses on natural heritage that provides the habitat for biological diversity. It also deals with the cultural setting that embodies crucial knowledge and experience founded upon the natural heritage.
  3. Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (RAMSAR) 1971: Uganda signed the convention on the 4th March 1988 and ratified it on the 4th July 1988. The objective of the convention is to halt the loss of wetlands worldwide, and to conserve the existing wetlands through wise use and management. It targets activities with negative effect on wetlands, to ensure minimum loss of biodiversity with its associated ecological, hydrological, cultural and social values of wetlands.
  4. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (1992): Uganda signed the convention on the 12th June 1992 and ratified it on the 8th September 1993. CBD seeks to conserve biological diversity, and promote the sustainable use of its components, and hence encourage equitable sharing of benefits arising out of genetic resources.
  5. The Lusaka Agreement on Co-operative Enforcement Operations Directed at illegal Trade in Wild Flora and Fauna (1994): Uganda signed the agreement on 8th September 1994 and ratified on 12th April 1996. Its objective is to reduce and eventually eliminate illegal access for trade in wild fauna and flora and set up a permanent Task Force for this intention.
  6. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification Particularly in Africa (1994): Uganda signed the agreement on 21st November 1994 and ratified on 25th June 1997. This convention seeks to achieve sustainable development through better land and water resource management. It is primarily concerned with management of ecosystems and habitats.
  7. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora:

Uganda is a party to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), which obliges member states to adhere to the recommendation of the conference of parties with respect to trade in endangered species.

1.0 KIDEPO VALLEY NATIONAL PARK

The Kidepo Valley National Park (KVNP) is located in the extreme Eastern corner of Uganda and includes Lipan wildlife area. The KVNP shares an international border with the Sudan in the North and on the Eastern part it falls short of borders with Kenya by 5km at the shortest distance. Descriptive illustration of the KVNP gives you the holistic impression of the protected area under discussion (see Figure 1). It was gazetted in 1962, with an area of 1,442km² to commemorate Uganda's independence. It harbors diversity of ecological ecosystems with unique landscape. It falls under the administration units of Kaabong and Kitgum Districts.

The ecosystems of KVNP consist of the Zulia forest, Morungole and Lonyil ranges, Lipan wildlife area, Orom forest, and parts of the Kidepo Game Reserve (Southern Sudan), which forms contiguous ecosystem with KVNP. Larger contiguous ecosystems safe guard biodiversity, and hence maintain viable population of faunal species (Sandwith., et al., 2001). The ecosystem will promote and enhance co-operation for conservation among the two PA's along the mountainous belt. These mountains are the source of rivers, which flow into and serve as important catchment for the park ecosystem. The green areas in (Figure. 1), reflect high conservation spots whose major purpose to protect fragile ecosystems and wildlife (flora and fauna).

1.1Kidepo Valley Management goal

The prime purpose of Kidepo Valley National Park is to manage and sustain viable habitats and their associated wildlife populations for the long-term, and for the future generations.

1.2 Objectives

Objective of this part of the section involves providing a brief descriptive characteristic photo of the landscape ecosystem and the map of the Kidepo Valley National Park. The other main objectives include:

  1. the reflection of integrated management approach as new scientific concept for protected are management.
  2. the functions of protected area in regard to conservation of biodiversity for sustainable development.
  3. the reflection of the protected area based on the European perspectives.
  4. the category of the protected area, under which Kidepo Valley National Park falls and its management intervention.
  5. the linkage of the protected area with international convention

1.3 The significance of KVNP landscape ecosystem

The Kidepo landscape straddles the political boundaries of Uganda and the Sudan and drained by the seasonal River Kidepo and Narus valley that sustain the wildlife with water resources for most of the time. Figure 1.3 is part of the scenic landscape with the highest protection status, where protected area operations have safeguarded the integrity of the natural resources. There is evidence of endemic or endangered flora and fauna in the area. It represents a vital refuge for some rare and unique species for their survival and water catchment surface. As one of the riches ecosystem in Karamoja region and the vegetation is characterized by a wide variety of biodiversity species considered of high level of endemism. The plants and animals of KVNP also have great aesthetic value, and constitute important resources that are the basis of tourism industry. As a result its conservation is of a major regional and international significance.

2.0 INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

2.1 Legislation and Policy

The Uganda Wildlife Act (2000) empowers the Executive Director (through the Board of Trustee) to enter into collaborative arrangements with any person for the management of a protected areas or a portion of the protected area. One implication of these legislative provisions is the need for collaborative management agreements to be signed by the Executive Director of UWA. The Wildlife policy (1999) recognizes the role of collaborative management arrangements can play in contributing to improved conservation, particularly in regard to improving management efficiency, to addressing legitimate rights and claims to the area's resources, and enhancing community commitment to wildlife conservation. For instance entering into an agreement with partners such as concessioners for tourism development, and NGO's all have significant role and tremendous efforts in improving the conservation of biodiversity in KVNP by virtue of their influence.

Uganda Wildlife Policy (1999) defines integrated management as a process where by the protected area authority genuinely shares benefits, decision-making authority and responsibility in the management of protected areas or their resources with the local people, institutions and the private sector. There is wide spread interest by conservationists to adapt integrated conservation approach, which takes into consideration the involvement of local community needs into management of PA's and to gain support of the local people (Damm, 2002). The details of this shared management are arrived at through meaningful negotiation process (win-win outcome), and expressed in written agreement/MoU. The UWA currently uses two interrelated approaches to manage wildlife both within and outside protected areas as anew scientific paradigm. These are:

2.2 Specific issues agreement

This agreement involves discussion with local community to reach an agreement on aspecific problem or issue, which is of interest to both the KVNP management and the local community. Examples include: The development of agreements regarding the controlled use of a particular resource from the protected area e.g. regulated access for medicinal plants or water inside the park. The local community come into an agreement on how they can access mentioned resource from the park with technical guidance of the park management. The agreement details out responsibilities of both parties and defines monitoring mechanism and leeway for reviewing or revoke the agreement if the terms are not adhere to by parties.

2.3 Negotiated Collaborative Management Agreement

This approach differs from the specific issue agreement in that the agreement will cover a wider range of issues relevant to the local community in question, and may involve negotiations and trade-offs between the KVNP authorities and the local community to reach an agreement that will satisfactorily meet the objectives of both parties. For example an agreement on controlled use of a range of resources from the protected area, boundary management, problem animal management, provision of extension services for development of alternative resources outside the protected area, and community contribution to protection of the area from fire. The purpose for this approach is to reach an agreement that satisfies the objectives of both parties and the local community takes a much greater level of responsibility to meet the trade-offs through enforcing the conditions of the agreement.

3.0 FUNCTIONS OF KIDEPO VALLEY NATIONAL PARK

3.1 Conservation of biodiversity qualities:

  1. Aesthestic : The conservation values of KVNP can not be over emphasized by virtue of natural beauty, and its pristine wilderness and the inspiration, excitement and adventure that KVNP provides on global scale for its conservation of unique biodiversity.
  2. The cultural and spiritual sites: certains areas within the KVNP are normally used by the local communities to perform traditional rituals. These values are largely considered relevant according to the set up of the local communities surrounding the park. This is because they weld histoical reasons best recognised among the local communities and sites have been used since before KVNP was declared government gazetted areas to protected wildlife and its habitat. Since, hostorical many indigenous people place due respect to special cultural and spiritual significance on particular site or species (Posey, 1999 ; SCBD, 2004).
  3. Educationa and research: accordingly, KVNP by virtues of its conservation values provides an avenue for the best opportunities to study and explore the underlying natural ecology of its ecosystem and processes. Institutions in country including regional and international have always conducted scientific studies either for academic career or in fields geared towards improving the conservation of biodiversity in KVNP, and their recommendations are incorporate in General Management Plan (GMP) for park.
  4. Alaboratory for genetic resources: The most pertinent function of KVNP rolls on insitu reservoir of the genetic materials of various species, raw materials for which can be extracted sustainably for economic development. Protected areas are considered undisturbed ecological ecosystem for the maintenance of the critically important food resources (Kate and Laird, 1999). The materials like medicinal plant species are extracted from protected area for future discoveries of drugs for treatments (CBD,2004).
  5. Climate stablizers or influneces: The KVNP stands in an ecosystem of significant landscape with varied habitats, and therefore, plays significant role of regulating claimate in the region. The other important aspect for the conservation of KVNP contributes toward the carbon sequestration as well.
  6. Water catchment: The park protects watershed and natural ecological ecosystem to sustain both wildlife and the local communities surrounding the park as life supporting systems. It also provides the capacity by virtue of the ecosystem to regulate the extreme flood and any other environmental hazards. At the same time act as habitat and breeding ground for wildlife species.
  7. Sustainable utilization of renewable resources: Often local communities have expressed interest to utilise resources in KVNP. This is a rising out of the tradional life style in which local communities used to have access to these resources before legislations were put in place for conservation. UWA recognises the role of the local communities and legislation have been transformed to accommodate the need of the local communities as primary stakeholders. Based on this communities have access to certain resources such as water, non-timber products and collection of genetic materials for scientific purposes with limited scale for commercial aspects.

3.2 KVNP falls under EU perspective

The conservation status of this park falls directly under the European (EU) standards category II of IUCN, and therefore meets similar EU criteria for protected areas. The Natura 2000 conservation of natural resources for the year 2000 and beyond. Consequently, the future conservation of KVNP and biodivesity management requires the full participation of primary and secondary partners, which includes local communties as part of integral management paradigm. The international legislations on conservation of biodiversity form part of the fundamental principles for which KVNP biodiversity is conserved for to attain integral management.

3.3 National system category

In accordance with IUCN criterion KVNP is classified under category II of the IUCN protected areas. As regards to the implementation of the IUCN obejectives, certainly, the UWA has endevoured to meet the objectives of the IUCN through the implementation of the GMP for KVNP to achieve the overall set mission of the oragization, and KVNP ultimate management goal. Although KVNP falls under category II of management, it protects large scale of unmodified ecosystem considered ecologically a wilderness zone by virtue of its habitat set up. Of course, in every system there is room for review of management interventions in accordance with GMP to ascertain wheather the set objectives were achieved as planned. This will pave way to re-design the actions and hence bridge the identified gaps, which call for immmediate approach for improvement. Conservation of biodiversity at various scales require financial support to enhance the implementation of the gaps identified. The innovations in management and governance for biodiversity conservation have emerged, but the overall spatial impact remains arguably low, as aresult of inedequate funds to support park operational activities.

3.4 The linkage between KVNP and international conventions

The KVNP meets the objectives and the principles of international instruments targeted towards the conservation of biodiversity and the linkage is absolutely strong. Since the GoU ratified these conventions in order to protect the country's biodiversity as part of KVNP obligation under international laws. These instruments serve as atool to facilitate regional and international bilateral understanding among nations, and its leeway for donor intervention to diffuse elements of threats to protected area biodiversity of international significance. Biodiversity therefore is considered as afundamental to human welfare and economic vehicle for the country's sustainable development and thus improve local community livelihoods.

CONCLUSION

The overall conclusion drawn from the dicussion places more emphasis on strengthening more efforts in biodiversity conservation and management of the PA's and related environment to protected wildlife and its habitat. In addition, the analysis of the PA's in Uganda, suggests that PA's are critical justification for conservation points of biodiversity and sustainable economic for development of the country and integral part of rural livelihoods. The figures revealed from analysis sets the country improved foreign currency from her natural heritage and this largely accounts for the sustainable eco-tourism for the country's development. Appropriate legislation / policies and institutional framework for sustainable management of the biodiversity in PA's have improved the conservation of biodiversity mainly on protected areas. The more practical approaches that promise to impact positively on biodiversity conservation are the resource benefit sharing with local communities adjacent the PA's and hence win their support for conservation. Of course threats to biodievrsity is on going spiral challenge and can be achieved with involvement of all institutions of GoU including NGO's and donor support at field level interventions.

REFERENCES

Arce, J.P., and Cleveland, C. J., (Eds.). 2009. World Database on Protected Areas: Protected Areas of Uganda, Washington. D.C, EIC, NCSE. Website: http://www.eoearth.org/artcle/protectedareasofuganda

Butynki, T.M., 1990. Status, Distribution and Conservation of Mountain Gorilla Reserve, Uganda. Primate Conservation Website: http://www.berggorilla.de (accessed on 20/11/90).

Damm, G.R., (1st Ed.). 2002. The Conservation Game: Saving African's Biodiversity. Safari Club International African Chapter. South Africa Pp 193-200

Emerton, L., and Muramira,E., 1999. Uganda Biodiversity: Economic Assessment. IUCN, Technical Report, NEMA.

FAO, Forestry Department., 2000. Country file: Uganda Ecological zones. Website: http://www.fao.org/forestry/site/1997/en/uga. (accessed on 30/10/09).

FAO, Land and Water Development Division., 2005. Aquastat: Uganda.Website http://world.wide. (accessed on13/11/09).

Government of Uganda. 2000. The Uganda Wildlife Act. Entebbe, Uganda.

Gowa, Elizabeth., 2003. Uganda Environmental Profile: National Environment outlook. UNEP. Website: http://www.gowa.org (accessed on 21/10/09).

Hockings, M., Stolton, S., Dudley, N., and Parrish, J., 2001. The enhancing our Heritage Tool kit: boo 1.UNESCO and IUCN Website: http://.enhancingheritage.net/docs_public.asp (accessed on 23/11/09)

Howard, P.C., 1991. Nature Conservation in Uganda Tropical Forest Reserves. IUCN Gland Website: http://www.see.leeds.ac.uk/misc/elgon/mt_elgon.html (accessed on 06/12/09)

http://.hotelsinuganda.com/kidepo-national-park.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwenzori_Mountains_National_Park (accessed on 30/11/09) W Website: http://www.conservation.org/explore/priority_areas/hotspots/africa/Eastern-Afromontane/Pages/references.aspx (Retrieved 01/12/09)

http://www.see.leeds.ac.uk/misc/elgon/menp_map.html

IUCN, et al., 2004. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Gland, Switzerland: IUCN Webiste: http:// www.iucn.redlist.org. (accessed on 12 /11/09).

IUCN., 1998. Threatened Primates of Africa, the IUCN Red data book, IUCN Gland, Switzerland. Website: http://www.iucn.redlist.org (accessed 02/12/09)

IUCN., 2005. Strengthening IUCN's Programme on Protected Areas. Website. http://www.iucn.org/wcpa/pubs/pdfs. (accessed on 14/10/09).

Kate, K., and Laird, S.A., 1999. The Commercial Use of Biodiversity. Access to Genetic Resources and Benefit-sharing. London E.P.Ltd. Website: http://www.menkon-protectedareas.org/menkong/lessons.htm (accessed 01/12/09)

Katended, A, et al., 1990. Birds and Woody Perennials Inventory: Mountain Elgon Forest Reserve, Sustainable Development and Forest Conservation Uganda, Technical Report N0.1. IUCN. Website: http://www.see.leeds.ac.uk/elgon/mt_elgon.html (accessed on 30/11/09)

Maclean, et al., 2003. Social and Economic Use of Wetland resources: A case study from Bunyonyi, Uganda. ESERGE Working paper ECM 03-09.

MTTI., 1999. Wildlife Policy. Ministry of Tourism Trade and Industry (MTTI) Entebbe, Uganda.

Myers, N., 1997. The World's Forest and their ecosystems, in Daily,G., (ed.) Nature's Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems, Island Press, Washington DC. Website: http://www.unu.edu/millinium/myers.html (Retrieved on 12/12/09).

National Wetlads Programme, Uganda.,2004. Wetlands in Uganda. Website: http://www.uganda.wetlands.org/overview.htm (accessed on 14/11/09).

NEMA., 2001. State of the Environment report for Uganda 2000/2001.Kampala, Uganda. Website: http://www.nemaug.org/soe/soe2000.pdf (accessed on 08/11/09).

Penny, S., and Peter,V., 1998. From Conflict to Collaboration: People and Forests at Mount Elgon, Uganda. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK 11: 202-221

Plumptre, A.J., Behangana, M., Davenport, T.R.B., Kahindo, C., Ndomba, E.R., Ssegawa, P., Eilu, G., Nkuutu, D., and Owiunji, I., 2003. The Biodiversity of the Albertine Rift. Albertine Rift Technical Report Series N0.3 Wildlife Conservation Society.Website http://www.wcs.org (accessed on 03/12/09)

Posey, D.A., 1999. Cultural and Spiritual values of Biodiversity, UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. Website: http: // www.unep.org/publ/pdf.htm (accessed on 01/12/09).

Sala,O., and Paruelo,J., 1997. Ecosystems Services in grasslands, in Daily,G.,(ed.) Nature's Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems, Island Press Washington, DC. Website: http:// www.eoearth.org/article/Forests_and_woodlands_in_Africa

Sandwich, T., Shine, C., Hamilton, L., Shepperd, D., 2001. Transboundary Protected Areas for Peace and Co-operation. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Pp 8-22

SCBD, 2004. Biodiversity issues for consideration in the planning, establishment and management of protected areas sites and networks. Montreal. SCBD. Technical Series #. 15 Pp 14-27.

Synnott, T.J., 1968. Working Plan for Mount Elgon Central Forest Reserve. 1st Revision Period 1968 to 1978. Uganda Forest Department, Entebb

上一篇:What Parent Characteristics Are Related To the Physical Abuse of the Children? 下一篇:返回列表