Literature review: reading strategies

LITERATURE REVIEW

The literature review began by accessing the ERIC database using keywords "reading strategies". The result was a deluge of studies and other publications. The list was filtered using the following criteria, reading comprehension, reading in the content area (secondary education), and at-risk readers. It should be noted that many reading programs exist at the elementary level, but few exist at the secondary level (Langer, 2001). For that reason, some studies of elementary reading programs were included in the literature review. However, beginning to read elementary studies were excluded. Both quantitative and qualitative studies were included in the literature review, along with books written by leading researchers in the field of reading (Allington, 2001), (Beers, 2003), (Pressley, 2001),( Tovani, 2000). As the literature review expanded, entries were coded according to two emerging focus of basic skills and reading comprehension. Published studies were found in peer reviewed journal unpublished studies were found among papers presented at conferences. Books and other journal articles provided a foundation on which to develop a comprehensive understanding of reading intervention at the secondary level. Two reading problems were found throughout the literature on struggling readers, a deficiency of basic proficiency skills and poor reading comprehension skills. Studies in both classifications included many instructional strategies. In the studies examined, thematic consistency emerged in the findings even though research was conducted at different locations under varying circumstances. First, poor reading comprehension is a result of inadequate training and insufficient practice in expressing thought and applying reason. Second, comprehension cannot occur if one is unable to apply basic reading skills. Third, with appropriate intervention strategies and time, basic skills and reading comprehension can be improved for a regular education student who is a struggling reader. Differences in the studies included grade levels of subjects (elementary vs. secondary) and types of studies (quantitative vs. qualitative). The focus of all studies was on instruction in reading through school reinforcement. Three elements were identified as key components, curriculum and reading programs, instructional strategies, and teacher and student interaction.

The literature included many references (Allington 2002, Beers 2003, Irwin 2002, Langer, 2001, Rasinski & Padak, 2001, Tovani, 2000) to the instructional implications of reading. The concept that reading enables students to become independent, self sufficient learners was posited numerous times throughout the review (Cziko, & Mueller, 2001; Harmon, 2002; Worthy, Broaddus, & Ivey, 2001). According to Rex (2001), reading is a "socio-cultural experience", the students enjoy reading and discussing books or other material. However, some students experience reading only as a school-centred function or task, for which they receive little or no gratification. As children enter their middle school years, many become reluctant readers who lack effective reading strategies. To these children, the challenge of comprehending and analyzing expository text becomes overwhelming. Negative attitudes toward reading begin to gel and a frustration level is established. The literature uses many different terms for these reluctant readers who struggle with comprehension, including slow reader, low reader, or disabled reader (Alverman,2001). However, (Beers, 2003) cautioned, "Anyone can struggle given the right text. The struggle isn't the issue, the issue is what the reader does when the text gets tough" disengagement with reading. Findings of the study indicated that these middle school students were complex and multidimensional readers. They responded positively to a curriculum that was interdisciplinary, provided student choice, and promoted reading with purpose. While a qualitative study of this magnitude is not generaliseable, findings do provide insight to the efficacy of examining and responding to the individual instructional needs of readers. (Tovani, 2000) defined two types of at-risk readers most often encountered at the high school level. Resistive readers are those who choose not to read; word callers are those who can decode words, but cannot derive meaning or apply critical thinking to what has been read. As a result, words often become obstacles rather than bridges to understanding. A reading class designed to improve the comprehension of students must include strategies for overcoming both the inability to read and the lack of desire to read.

(Allington and Cunningham,1996) identified direct instruction of reading and time to read as important pedagogical issues for struggling readers. Time to read in class was also supported by (Irwin, 2002). In a research monograph on reading, (Braunger and Lewis 1997) reported that “students get better at reading by simply reading, and that actual reading time is a crucial factor in becoming a successful reader”. Conversely, lack of reading during the school day negatively affects reading development (Allington, 2001). (Goodlad,1984) reported that less than two percent of each school day is devoted to actual reading.

Though limited in scope, the study contributes to the literature on understanding how to teach reading. Instruction must begin with assessment, followed by appropriate skill development, coupled with guided reading. The ultimate goal is to produce competent readers who can employ effective comprehension strategies. Many reading advocates (Allington, 2002; Greenleaf et al., 2001; Guthrie, Schafer, & Wang, 1995; Ivey, 1999; Pressley, 1997; Purcell-Gates et al., 2002) recommend a student centered, constructivist approach that is interdisciplinary in nature. (Atwell, 1998) and (Carbo, 1997) amplified the importance of personal choice and interest in developing reading initiatives. These researchers supported the use of challenging (but not overwhelming) reading materials relevant to student interest that

required thought and analysis. Both researchers suggested that student interest in reading materials was linked to motivation to read. (Beers, 2003) suggested that "the challenge is not the language itself, but what the reader does to interpret the text." This is the essence of reading to learn across content areas at the high school level. Students must be able to think about what has been read, analyze it, and compare it to what is already known. The ability to comprehend text is the springboard to learning often missing in many high school classrooms. (Rex, 2001) conducted an ethnographic study of 27 students enrolled in a gifted and talented English literature classroom in an urban high school in Michigan. Seventeen of the students were labelled gifted, ten were general education students who had signed up for the class. The purpose of the study was to examine how students with varied reading abilities and diverse ethnic backgrounds analyzed, interpreted, and socially interacted with text in an advanced reading environment. The researcher immersed herself in the classroom for approximately one school year, video and audio taping class and individual discourse, recording field notes and observations, and conducting interviews with the teacher and students. Rex also collected classroom artifacts, such as reading logs, tests, quizzes, and journals. Two phases of data analysis were utilized. Phase I included a comparative analysis of data categorized according to (a) patterns of reading, writing, and speaking, (b) instructional practices, (c) cultural influences, and (d) patterns of student-to-student and student-to-teacher dialogue. Phase II included identification of specific cases for deeper analysis, such as examining a unique teaching practice or scrutinizing the learning interactions of a particular student. (Rex, 2001) found that integral to becoming a competent reader was becoming a productive contributor to reading discussions and recognizing the importance of socially constructed knowledge which emanates from critical analysis and group discourse. A limitation of this study centered on a lack of analysis of the pre-existing cultural, socio-economic, and gender influences that may have affected classroom discourse.

Another recurring strand in the literature centered on commercial reading programs and curricula. (Richards, 2001) stressed the importance of teachers' professional judgment in developing authentic reading programs and questioned the validity of commercially produced generic reading ventures. Teacher expertise in the reading process, instructional strategies, and the learning environment can affect how students develop as readers. Richards queried 144 students and 24 teachers in Mississippi using interviews and open-ended surveys. Teachers were asked to complete the Deford Theoretical Orientation to Reading Profile (TORP), an instrument designed to convey information about a teacher's phonics, skills, or whole language teaching proclivities. Data analysis revealed that 9 teachers utilized a phonics

orientation to reading instruction while 15 implemented a skills-based approach. The study unveiled significant gaps and discrepancies in teachers' knowledge about reading instruction. Few respondents implemented specific lessons designed to promote comprehension skills. Additionally, differentiation of instruction was minimized, and culturally responsive pedagogy was overlooked. Students responded to open-ended surveys in the Richards study. Most expressed murky conceptions about reading. A majority expressed the need for teachers to offer choice in reading selections and to implement a variety of instructional strategies to assist them with comprehending text. Examples included read-alouds, cooperative learning groups, interactive reading activities, and varying instruction from whole group to individualized tutelage. Many students also indicated an interest in computer-assisted instruction. Richards implored school district leaders and administrators "to carefully contemplate what they know about the teaching and learning of literacy and the complexities of the reading process" (Rasinski and Padak , 2001) developed a model of instruction that builds fluency and includes modelling, direct instruction, and support during choral reading. Modified versions of such programs exist at the secondary level, most notably at middle school. Few exist at the high school level where reading to learn is the focus. Community that places education as high priority in life will take adequate action to ensure their children achieve good grades at school. However, based on research regarding academic performance among Aboriginal students revealed different trend. According to Lim (in Nicholas Colins, 2000), the percentage of passes among aboriginal school children taking the Lower Secondary Examination (age 15) in 1990 to1992 was between 43 to 59 per cent, compared to 69 to 78 per cent at the national level. Similarly, from 1993 to 1995, only 51% to 54% of the aboriginal students passed the Malaysia Secondary Examination (age 17) compared to 66% to 67% nationally. There would be no changes in the passing rate among aboriginal students as studies proved that there were high percentage of absenteeism and dropouts. This has been attributed to factors such as lack of awareness on importance of education.

Studies carried out by (Abdul Razak and Mohd. Johdi, 2009) and (Tah Ling Way,2007) showed that the statistics of Aboriginal students who have not completed their studies in Form 5 in 2008 is deeply disturbing. Among the factors that contributed to the failure of students to complete their studies are the lack of awareness among the community about the importance of education. (Tah Ling Way,2007) also looked into the relationship between low self-esteem and academic achievement among these students. Tay’s findings showed that the female students have lower score of self-esteem than the male students, but the female students showed higher academic achievement than the male students. Despite this, these female students were found to contribute a great amount of drop outs before the public examination was held. The failure of Aboriginal students was investigated by (Johari and Nazri 2007). Their research has been conducted in Jelebu, Negeri Sembilan in 2006. A number of 90 aboriginal students of Temuan tribe, from 60 families was involved in this research. Data were collected using interview techniques such as home visits and observations. Open-ended and structured interview were given to parents, teachers, children and the community leaders. Research outcomes depict detailed findings how Aboriginal children failed in school. Factors contributing to their failure in school were the family background, socio-economic status, influences from the culture and also the school failure in implementing the educational policies in their school. These factors are found to be inter-related thus affect children performance in school. Study related to teaching and learning Malay Language among Aboriginal students was carried out by (Abdul Aziz et al,2010). This survey was done to identify the problems of learning the second language, Malay language among the Aboriginal students in a primary school in Perak. In their survey, Abdul Aziz et al. This survey was done to identify the problems of learning the second language, Malay language among the aboriginal students from semai sub-ethnic is facing problems on acquiring the second language due to interference from the mother tongue language of the students. Thus, an understanding on the level of literacy and factors hindering the aboriginal students to acquire adequate level of literacy is recommended so that prompt action could be taken.

(Saricoban, A. & Metin, E.,2000) on the other hand state that songs are important tool to teach grammar in the class. According to them, since meaning is an important device in teaching grammar, it is important to contextualize any grammar point. Songs are important tool to teach grammar in the class. According to them, since meaning is an important device in teaching grammar, it is important to contextualize any grammar point. Songs are one of the most enchanting and culturally rich resources that can easily be used in language classrooms. Songs offer a change from routine classroom activities. They are precious resources to develop student’s abilities in listening, speaking, reading, and writing. They can also be used to teach a variety of language items such as sentence patterns, vocabulary, pronunciation, rhythm, adjectives, and adverbs. As stated by (Lo and Li,1998), learning English through songs also provides a non-threatening atmosphere for students, who usually are tense when speaking English in a formal classroom setting. Songs also give new insights into the target culture. They are the means through which cultural themes are presented effectively. Since they provide authentic texts, they are motivating. Prosodic features of the language such as stress, rhythm, intonation are presented through songs, thus through using them the language which is cut up into a series of structural points becomes a whole again. There are many advantages of using songs in the classroom. Through using contemporary popular songs, which are already familiar to teenagers, the teacher can meet the challenges of the teenage needs in the classroom. Since songs are highly memorable and motivating, in many forms they may constitute a powerful subculture with their own rituals. Furthermore, through using traditional folk songs, the base of the learner’s knowledge of the target culture can be broadened Correctly chosen, traditional folk songs have the dual motivating attack of pretty tunes and interesting stories, plus for many students the added ingredient of novelty (Hill, 1999). Most songs, especially folk songs, follow a regularly repeated verse form, with rhyme, and have a series of other discourse features, which make them easy to follow.

Finally, if they are selected properly and adopted carefully, a teacher should benefit from songs in all phases of teaching grammar. Songs may both be used for the presentation or the practice phase of the grammar lesson. They may encourage extensive and intensive listening, and inspire creativity and use of imagination in a relaxed classroom atmosphere. While selecting a song the teacher should take the age, interests of the learners and the language being used in the song into consideration. It is also beneficial to allow learners to take part in the selection of the songs to enhance the learner’s commitment.